As we are moving deeper into the Anthropocene, we are moving further toward phasing out fossil fuels and taking steps toward a transition in the energy sector. It is the transition to clean energy that is on the agenda, and it brings new concerns. This includes a concern for the supply of the critical raw materials (CRMs) that are needed to facilitate the change. These materials include cobalt, graphite, or lithium, and are crucial for producing clean energy technology such as solar panels and electric cars.
The raw materials mentioned above are considered critical because of their indispensable character, given that they have a high supply risk and are vital in the clean energy transition. Today, the world is overly reliant on a few specific regions that produce CRMs, including the Democratic Republic of Congo, which under grievous humanitarian conditions produces 70% of the world’s cobalt. In contrast, Europe consumes about a quarter of the world’s raw materials whilst only being responsible for 3% of production.
Exploring ways to attain CRMs globally includes exploration of the industry of deep-sea mining. Deep-sea mining describes mining operations that take place on the seabed at depths greater than 200 meters. At these depths lie unexplored environments filled with biological diversity and unique ecosystems that are yet to be fully scientifically understood. The deep sea also has the ability to absorb and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. As the seabed at these depths has so far been largely unexplored by humanity, future implications of seabed exploitation remain relatively unknown.
The deep seabed holds significant amounts of CRMs in forms of rocks and crusts, which are very attractive to investors. New mining technology would extract these through a process of ”vacuuming”, essentially disrupting and destroying the habitats and lives of numerous deep-sea organisms. At the moment however, it is essential to note that the commercial extraction of these materials is yet to be performed in international waters, but this issue is constantly gathering speed. When it comes to governance of the deep seabed in international waters—namely the Area—the world turns toward the International Seabed Authority (ISA).
The ISA was formally established in 1994 and operates under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Situated in Kingston, Jamaica, the ISA has the task of protecting the ocean, the common heritage of humankind, and making regulations related to its welfare, resources, and activities. Consisting of 170 Member States, including the European Union (EU), the ISA has in recent years played a crucial role in the debate of whether to prevent or allow the new deep-sea mining industry to commercially bloom.
The debate on whether to allow deep-sea mining has become heavily politicized with both state actors and non-state actors involved in the mix. On the one hand, there are corporations and states ready to invest in this new industry, and the ISA has so far issued over 20 exploration contracts for deep-sea mining in the Clarion Clipperton Zone in the Pacific Ocean. On the other hand, there is a Global Moratorium issued by the Deep Sea Conservation Coalition which in 2024 had 32 states that stand in opposition to deep-sea mining due to its anticipated severe environmental implications.
There has also been activity among other environmental organizations, such as the Sustainable Ocean Alliance, the UNEPFI, and the WWF, who advocate for the prohibition of deep-sea mining. On top of this, the issue has been debated in the European Parliament, where it was both condemned and praised, with some specifically criticizing Norway’s decision to allow for the exploration of potential mining operations on its deep seabed.
Deep-sea mining might not look like a feasible solution to obtain CRMs sustainably, but the idea sure does make us ask questions. As the EU on its own has low productivity in terms of extracting CRMs, it will increasingly have to focus on the maintenance of sustainable supply chains and find ways to reduce dependency on other regions. Another important aspect that is debated is the need for an increased focus on justice and human rights when it comes to the current extractive practices of CRMs, including concepts such as climate justice and a just (clean) energy transition. One could possibly project that the question of how to sustainably mine CRMs will continuously be central to future debates on clean energy. There may, however, arise more questions than answers.
By Moa Gustafsson
November 5, 2024
